F Gls
The sulfur atom in the sulfite ion, SO32 , can be described as sp3 hybridized. One of these hybrid orbitals contains the sulfur lone pair, and the remaining three overlap with oxygen orbitals to form bonds. AB3U molecules and ions, each having four regions of high electron density around the central atom, usually have tetrahedral electronic geometry, trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry, and sp3 hybridization on the central atom. We must remember that theory and its application depends on...
I Axu
Step 2 N 2 X 8 for Cl 1 X 4 for Be 20 e- needed A 2 X 7 for Cl 1 X 2 for Be 16 e- available 5 N - A 20 e- - 16 e- 4 e- shared Step 3 Cl s Be s Cl Step 4 Cl Be Cl or Cl Be Cl Calculation of formal charges shows that for Be, FC 2 - 2 0 0 and for Cl, FC 7 - 1 6 0 Screen 9.7, Electron-Deficient Compounds. BF3 and BQ3 are gases at room temperature. Liquid BBr3 and solid BI3 are shown here. BF3 and BQ3 are gases at room temperature. Liquid BBr3 and solid BI3 are shown here. In BeCl2, the chlorine...
Limitations Of The Octet Rule For Lewis Formulas
Recall that representative elements achieve noble gas electron configurations in most of their compounds. But when the octet rule is not applicable, the relationship S N A is not valid without modification. The following are general cases for which the procedure in Section 7-5 must be modified that is, there are four types of limitations of the octet rule. A. Most covalent compounds of beryllium, Be. Because Be contains only two valence shell electrons, it usually forms only two covalent bonds...
Our Daily Lives
Y ou may have encountered some salts of ternary acids without even being aware of them. For example, the iron in many of your breakfast cereals and breads may have been added in the form of iron II sulfate, FeSO4, or iron II phosphate, Fe3 PO4 2 the calcium in these foods often comes from the addition of calcium carbonate, CaCO3. Fruits and vegetables keep fresh longer after an application of sodium sulfite, Na2SO3, and sodium hydrogen sulfite, NaHSO3. Restaurants also use these two sulfites to...
H Qea
No hydrogen atoms are attached to the carbon atoms that are involved in fusion of aromatic rings, that is, carbon atoms that are members of two or more aromatic rings. The traditional name is often used as part of the base name in naming an aromatic hydrocarbon and its derivatives. You should know the names and structures of the aromatic hydrocarbons discussed thus far benzene, toluene, the three xylenes, naphthalene, anthracene, and phenanthrene. Distillation of coal tar provides four volatile...
O Wag
secondary amines. Amides contain the C N functional group. They are named as Most natural fatty acids contain even numbers of carbon atoms because they are synthesized in the body from two-carbon acetyl groups. Honeybees produce the wax to build their honeycombs. Figure 27-19 Models of long-chain fatty acids. The saturated fatty acids a are linear and tend to pack like sticks of wood to form solid masses in blood vessels, thereby constricting them. The trans unsaturated fatty acids have a...
Our Daily Lives Wox
A Spectacular View of One Mole of Electrons Early in our study of chemistry, we saw that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. We also discussed the incredibly large size of Avogadro's number, 6.022 X 1023. Although individual atoms and molecules are invisible to the naked eye, one mole of atoms or molecules is easily detected. Because subatomic particles are even smaller than atoms and also invisible, you might never expect to see individual electrons. Let's consider the...
TABLE Uid
Li K Ca Na Mg Al Mn Zn Cr Fe Cd Co Ni Sn Pb H2 Sb Cu Hg Ag Pt Au Cr3 , Cr6 Fe2 , Fe3 Cd2 Co2 Ni2 A large piece of zinc metal is placed in a copper II sulfate, CuSO4, solution. The blue solution becomes colorless as copper metal falls to the bottom of the container. The resulting solution contains zinc sulfate, ZnSO4. Write balanced formula unit, total ionic, and net ionic equations for the reaction. The metals zinc and copper are not ionized or dissociated in contact with H2O. Both CuSO4 and...
Concentrations of SolutionsPercent by Mass
55. a How many moles of solute are contained in 500 g of b How many grams of solute are contained in the solution of part a c How many grams of water the solvent are contained in the solution of part a 56. The density of an 18.0 solution of ammonium sulfate, NH4 2SO4, is 1.10 g mL. What mass of NH4 2SO4 is required to prepare 275 mL of this solution 57. The density of an 18.0 solution of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, solution is 1.05 g mL. What mass of NH4Cl does 275 mL of this solution contain 58....
Dilution of Solutions 1
70. Commercial concentrated hydrochloric acid is 12.0 M HCl. What volume of concentrated hydrochloric acid is required to prepare 4.50 L of 2.25 M HCl solution 71. Commercially available concentrated sulfuric acid is 18.0 M H2SO4. Calculate the volume of concentrated sulfuric acid required to prepare 4.50 L of 2.25 M H2SO4 solution. 72. Calculate the volume of 0.0600 M Ba OH 2 solution that contains the same number of moles of Ba OH 2 as 225 mL of 0.0900 M Ba OH 2 solution. 73. Calculate the...
Properties of Aqueous Solutions of Acids and Bases 1
30. Write equations and designate conjugate pairs for the stepwise reactions in water of a H2SO4 and b H2SO3. 31. List six properties of aqueous solutions of protonic acids. 32. List five properties of bases in aqueous solution. Does aqueous ammonia exhibit these properties Why 33. We say that strong acids, weak acids, and weak bases ionize in water, but strong bases dissociate in water. What is the difference between ionization and dissociation 34. Distinguish between solubility in water and...
Info Otq
91. In each of the following, both compounds are water-soluble. Predict whether a precipitate will form when solutions of the two are mixed, and, if so, identify the compound that precipitates. a Pb NO3 2, Nal b Ba NO3 2, KCl c NH4 2S, AgNO3 92. In each of the following, both compounds are water-soluble. Predict whether a precipitate will form when solutions of the two are mixed, and, if so, identify the compound that precipitates. a N Br, Hg2 NO3 2 b KOH, Na2S c Cs2SO4, MgCl2 The following...
b Ulc
mobile. As a result, covalent solids are usually poor thermal and electrical conductors at ordinary temperatures. Diamond, however, is a good conductor of heat jewelers use this property to distinguish diamonds from imitations. An important exception to these generalizations about properties is graphite, an allotropic form of carbon. It has the layer structure shown in Figure 13-32c. The overlap of an extended -electron network in each plane makes graphite an excellent conductor. The very weak...
Info Wkz
Many sugars are rich sources in our diet. The most familiar is ordinary table sugar, which is sucrose, C12H22O11. An enzyme in our saliva readily splits sucrose into two simple sugars, glucose and fructose. The simplest formula for both glucose and fructose is CgH Og. They have different structures and different properties, however, so they are different compounds. Step 2 The simplest formula is CH2O, which has a formula weight of 30.03 amu. Because the molecular weight of glucose is...
ttL
Figure 8-7 Diagram of the two linear hybridized sp orbitals green of an atom. These lie in a straight line, and the two unhybridized p orbitals py tan, cross-hatched and pz tan, hatched lie in the perpendicular plane and are perpendicular to each other. The two carbon atoms form one sigma bond by head-on overlap of the sp hybrid orbitals each C atom also forms a sigma bond with one H atom. The sp hybrids on each atom are 180 apart. Thus, the entire molecule must be linear. Figure 8-7 Diagram of...
Info Ggm
You should now work Exercises 57 and 59. Aluminum displaces H2 from a hydrochloric acid solution. Aluminum displaces H2 from a hydrochloric acid solution. Which of the following metals can displace hydrogen from hydrochloric acid solution Write balanced formula unit, total ionic, and net ionic equations for reactions that can occur. The activity series of the metals, Table 4-12, tells us that copper and silver do not displace hydrogen from solutions of nonoxidizing acids. Aluminum is an active...
Info Rjz
- Molecular dipole includes effect of two unshared electron pairs. A model of H2O, an angular AB2U2 molecule, showing the lone pairs. A model of H2O, an angular AB2U2 molecule, showing the lone pairs. The bond angle in H2O 104.5 is closer to the tetrahedral value 109.5 than to the 90 angle that would result from bonding by pure 2p atomic orbitals on O. Valence bond theory therefore postulates four sp3 hybrid orbitals centered on the O atom two to participate in bonding and two to hold the two...
Nhi
ammonium iodide calcium cyanide sodium hydroxide copper II hydroxide or cupric hydroxide iron III hydroxide or ferric hydroxide A list of common cations and anions appears in Table 4-15. It will enable you to name many of the ionic compounds you encounter. Nearly all binary molecular compounds involve two nonmetals bonded together. Although many nonmetals can exhibit different oxidation numbers, their oxidation numbers are not properly indicated by Roman numerals or suffixes. Instead, elemental...
Info Sym
More Active Metal Salt of Less Active Metal Less Active Metal Salt of More Active Metal Solid ammonium dichromate, NH C Oy, orange decomposes when heated into chromium II oxide, amp 2O3, green , nitrogen, and steam water vapor . This reaction is sometimes demonstrated as the classroom volcano, but it must be done with extreme caution due to the carcinogenic cancer-causing nature of amp 2O3. The reaction of copper with silver nitrate that was described in detail in Section 4-3 is typical. Please...
K Ogj
See the Saunders Interactive V_y General Chemistry CD-ROM, Screen 16.14, Disturbing a Chemical Equilibrium 4 Volume Changes. The term n V represents concentration, that is, mol L. At constant temperature, n, R, and T are constants. Thus, if the volume occupied by a gas decreases, its partial pressure increases and its concentration n V increases. If the volume of a gas increases, both its partial pressure and its concentration decrease. Consider the following gaseous system at equilibrium....
Key Term Of Chemical Property
Acid Arrhenius or Br0nsted-Lowry A substance that produces H aq ions in aqueous solution. Strong acids ionize completely or almost completely in dilute aqueous solution weak acids ionize only slightly. Acid anhydride The oxide of a nonmetal that reacts with water to form an acid. Acidic salt A salt that contains an ionizable hydrogen atom does not necessarily produce acidic solutions. Amphiprotism The ability of a substance to exhibit amphoter-ism by accepting or donating protons. Amphoterism...
Uses Of Solubility Product Constants
When the solubility product for a compound is known, the solubility of the compound in H2O at 25 C can be calculated as Example 20-3 illustrates. Example 20-3 Molar Solubilities from ksp Values Calculate the molar solubilities, concentrations of the constituent ions, and solubilities in grams per liter for a silver chloride, AgCl Ksp 1.8 X 10-10 , and b zinc hydroxide, Zn OH 2 KSp 4.5 X 10-17 . We are given the value for each solubility product constant. In each case we write the appropriate...
Interpretation of Chemical Formulas
71. One prominent ore of copper contains chalcopyrite, CuFeS2. How many pounds of copper are contained in 2.63 pounds of pure CuFeS2 72. Mercury occurs as a sulfide ore called cinnabar, HgS. How many grams of mercury are contained in 887 g of pure HgS 73. a How many grams of copper are contained in 325 g of CuSO4 b How many grams of copper are contained in 325 g of CuSO4 5H2O 74. What mass of KMnO4 would contain 15.0 g of manganese 75. What mass of azurite, Cu3 CO3 OH 2, would contain 610 g of...
Mixed Examples
85. How many moles of chlorine atoms are contained in each of the following a 35.45 X 1023 Cl atoms b 35.45 X 1023 Cl2 molecules c 35.45 g of chlorine d 35.45 mol of Cl2. 86. What is the maximum number of moles of CO2 that could be obtained from the carbon in each of the following a 4.00 mol of Ru2 CO3 3 b 4.00 mol of CaCO3 87. a How many formula units are contained in 154.3 g of MoO4 b How many potassium ions c How many MoO42 ions d How many atoms of all kinds 88. a How many moles of ozone...
Atom Composition Isotopes and Atomic Weights
10. Arrange the following in order of increasing ratio of charge to mass 12C , 12C2 , 14N , 14N2 . 11. Refer to Exercise 10. Suppose all of these high-energy ions are present in a mass spectrometer. For which one will its path be changed a the most and b the least by increasing the external magnetic field 12. Estimate the percentage of the total mass of a 29Cu atom that is due to a electrons, b protons, and c neutrons by assuming that the mass of the atom is simply the sum of the masses of the...
J Clb
Can you show that the hydrocarbon in Example 2-14 is propane, C3H8 When the compound to be analyzed contains oxygen, the calculation of the amount or percentage of oxygen in the sample is somewhat different. Part of the oxygen that goes to form CO2 and H2O comes from the sample and part comes from the oxygen stream supplied. For that reason, we cannot directly determine the amount of oxygen already in the sample. The approach is to analyze as we did in Example 2-14 for all elements except...
Standard Cell Potentials
45. a What are standard electrochemical conditions b Why are we permitted to assign arbitrarily an electrode potential of exactly 0 V to the standard hydrogen electrode 46. What does the sign of the standard reduction potential of a half-reaction indicate What does the magnitude indicate 47. a What are standard reduction potentials b What information is contained in tables of standard reduction potentials Tables 21-2 and 21-3, Appendix J How is the information in such tables arranged 48....
Info Lmn
a How do the melting points and boiling points of the alkanes vary with molecular weight b Do you expect them to vary in this order c Why or why not Use intermolecular forces to explain your answer. a What are resonance structures b Draw resonance structures for benzene. c What do we mean when we say that the electrons associated with the t bonds in benzene are delocalized over the entire ring 126. Lidocaine has replaced Novocain procaine as the favored anesthetic in dentistry. What functional...
Info Viz
Most common inorganic acids and the low-molecular-weight organic acids COOH are water-soluble. The low-molecular-weight amines are water-soluble. The very small concentrations of insoluble metal hydroxides and insoluble salts in saturated aqueous solutions are nearly completely dissociated. There are a few exceptions. A few soluble salts are molecular and not ionic compounds. Most common inorganic acids and the low-molecular-weight organic acids COOH are water-soluble. The low-molecular-weight...
n Lti
Ca lt Pb lt S lt Cl Periodic group IIA IVA VIA VIIA Thus, the order is CaO lt PbO2 lt SO3 lt Cl2O7 Example 6-9 Basic Character of Oxides Arrange the oxides in Example 6-8 in order of increasing basicity. Plan The greater the molecular character of an oxide, the more acidic it is. Thus, the most basic oxides have the least molecular most ionic character see Figure 6-8 .
Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance to flow of a liquid. Honey has a high viscosity at room temperature, and freely flowing gasoline has a low viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid can be measured with a viscometer such as the one in Figure 13-7. For a liquid to flow, the molecules must be able to slide past one another. In general, the stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction, the more viscous the liquid is. Substances that have a great ability to form hydrogen bonds, especially involving...
C Gxj
Nylon is formed at the interface where hexamethylenediamine in the lower water layer and adipyl chloride a derivative of adipic acid, in the upper hexane layer react. The nylon can be drawn out and wound on a stirring rod. In industry, adipic acid is used in place of adipyl chloride. Nylon is formed at the interface where hexamethylenediamine in the lower water layer and adipyl chloride a derivative of adipic acid, in the upper hexane layer react. The nylon can be drawn out and wound on a...
Info Vdr
NOTE All exercises in this chapter assume a temperature of 25 C unless they specify otherwise. All logarithms are common base 10 . 1. List names and formulas for a the common strong acids b six weak bases c the common strong bases d ten soluble ionic salts. 2. a How are a strong acid and a weak acid similar How are they different b How are a strong base and a weak base similar How are they different 3. Which of the following are strong electrolytes Group IA hydroxide, Group IIIA hydroxide, Zn...
P Igt
The total pressure exerted by a mixture of ideal gases is the sum of the partial pressures of those gases. Dalton's Law is useful in describing real gaseous mixtures at moderate pressures because it allows us to relate total measured pressures to the composition of mixtures. A 10.0-liter flask contains 0.200 mole of methane, 0.300 mole of hydrogen, and 0.400 mole of nitrogen at 25 C. a What is the pressure, in atmospheres, inside the flask b What is the partial pressure of each component of the...
Info Brx
Figure 14-19 Stabilization of a colloid Fe2O3 sol by electrostatic forces. Each colloidal particle of this red sol is a cluster of many formula units of hydrated Fe2O3. Each attracts positively charged Fe3 ions to its surface. Fe3 ions fit readily into the crystal structure, so they are preferentially adsorbed rather than the Cl- ions. Each particle is then surrounded by a shell of positively charged ions, so the particles repel one another and cannot combine to the extent necessary to cause...
Info Wsv
a Plot Cl2 versus t. b Plot S02Cl2 versus t. c Determine the rate law for this reaction. d What is the value, with units, for the specific rate constant at 320 C e How long would it take for 95 of the original SO2Q2 to react 46. At some temperature, the rate constant for the decomposition of HI on a gold surface is 0.080 M - s-1. a What is the order of the reaction b How long will it take for the concentration of HI to drop from 1.50 M to 0.30 M Activation Energy, Temperature, and Catalysts...
Info Fft
44. Answer Exercise 43 for the real solution of acetone and chloroform. 45. A solution is prepared by mixing 60.0 g of dichloro-methane, CH2Q2, and 30.0 g of dibromomethane, CH2Br2, at 0 C. The vapor pressure at 0 C of pure CH2Cl2 is 0.175 atm, and that of CH2Br2 is 0.0150 atm. a Assuming ideal behavior, calculate the total vapor pressure of the solution. b Calculate the mole fractions of CH2Cl2 and CH2Br2 in the vapor above the liquid. Assume that both the vapor and the solution behave...
Nuclear Reactions
27. Consider a radioactive nuclide with a neutron proton ratio that is larger than those for the stable isotopes of that element. What mode s of decay might be expected for this nuclide, and why 28. Repeat Exercise 27 for a nuclide with a neutron proton ratio that is smaller than those for the stable isotopes. 29. Calculate the neutron proton ratio for each of the following radioactive nuclides, and predict how each of the nuclides might decay a 0jB stable mass numbers for B are 10 and 11 b...
Hso
88. What is the total mass of products formed when 38.8 g of carbon disulfide is burned in air What mass of carbon disulfide must be burned to produce a mixture of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide that has a mass of 54.2 g 89. Iron II chloride, FeC , reacts with ammonia, NH3, and water, H2O, to produce iron II hydroxide, Fe OH 2, and ammonium chloride, NH4Cl. a Write the balanced equation for this reaction. b We mix 78.5 g FeCl2, 25.0 g NH3, and 25.0 g H2O, which then react as completely as...
Info Mia
salts hydrolyze to form hydroxide ions that reduce the degree of acidity in the stomach. Physicians also prescribe these and similar salts to treat peptic ulcers. The repeated use of antacids should always be under the supervision of a physician. Salts of weak acids and strong bases can be used effectively against a major acid spill in much the same way they are used against sulfuric acid from a car battery or excess stomach acid. In a recent major acid spill, a tank car filled with nitric acid...
II Mps
C O , and a long nonpolar tail, CH CH . The head of the stearate ion is compatible with soluble in water, whereas the hydrocarbon tail is compatible with soluble in oil and grease. Groups of such ions can be dispersed in water because they form micelles Figure 14-21a . Their water-insoluble tails are in the interior of a micelle and their polar heads on the outside where they can interact with the polar water molecules. When sodium stearate is stirred into water, the result is not a true...
Rates of Decay
50. What does the half-life of a radionuclide represent How do we compare the relative stabilities of radionuclides in terms of half-lives 51. Why must all radioactive decays be first order 52. Describe the process by which steady-state constant ratios of carbon-14 to nonradioactive carbon-12 are attained in living plants and organisms. Describe the method of radiocarbon dating. What factors limit the use of this method 53. The half-life of 0 O is 29 s. What fraction of the isotope originally...
Calculations Involving Molarity
In Sections 3-6 through 3-8 we introduced methods for expressing concentrations of solutions and discussed some related calculations. Review of those sections will be helpful as we learn more about acid-base reactions in solutions. In some cases, the neutralization reaction involves one mole of an acid reacting with one mole of a base to effect neutralization. Because one mole of each acid reacts with one mole of each base in these cases, one liter of a one-molar solution of either of these...
Entropy Increase Example
- SN2 g 4SH2O g SN2H4 2SH2O2 Small booster rockets adjust the course of a satellite in orbit. Some of these small rockets are powered by the N2H4-H202 reaction. The mol designation for AS0xn refers to a mole of reaction, that is, one mole of i , two moles of 02 , and so on. Although it may not appear to be, 605.9 J mol K is a relatively large value of AS 0ys. The positive entropy change favors spontaneity. This reaction is also exothermic AH0 is negative . As we shall see, this reaction must be...
Determination of Simplest and Molecular Formulas
51. Determine the simplest formula for each of the following compounds a copper II tartrate 30.03 Cu 22.70 C 1.91 H 45.37 O. b nitrosyl fluoroborate 11.99 N 13.70 O 9.25 B 65.06 F. 52. The hormone norepinephrine is released in the human body during stress and increases the body's metabolic rate. Like many biochemical compounds, norepinephrine is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The percent composition of this hormone is 56.8 C, 6.56 H, 28.4 O, and 8.28 N. What is the simplest...
Cooch
Double salts are ionic solids resulting from the cocrystallization of two salts from the same solution into a single structure. In the example given, the solid is produced from an aqueous solution of iron II sulfate, FeSO4, and ammonium sulfate, NH4 2SO4. Many important biological substances are coordination compounds. Hemoglobin and chlorophyll are two examples Figure 25-1 . Hemoglobin is a protein that carries O2 in blood. It contains iron II ions bound to large porphyrin rings. The transport...
CONCEPTUAL EXERCISES Eps
87. Describe how you could prepare 1.00 L of 1.00 X 106 M NaCl solution by using a balance that can only measure masses to 0.01 g. 88. Ascorbic acid vitamin C , along with many other reputed properties, acts as an antioxidant. The following equation illustrates its antioxidant properties. What is an antioxidant Assign oxidation numbers. Is vitamin C oxidized or reduced in this reaction
T Vkk
Solving for KTl and substituting the known value of KTi , we obtain KT2 5.1 X 1027 Kt 5.1 X 1027 4.4 X 10 31 2.2 X 10 3 at 2400. K You should now work Exercise 88 b-f . 2400 K is a typical temperature inside the combustion chambers of automobile engines. Large quantities of N2 and O2 are present during gasoline combustion, because the gasoline is mixed with air. Problem-Solving Tip Use the Correct K The K values that appear in the van't Hoff equation represent the thermodynamic equilibrium...
Reaction With A Precipitate
Now we find the concentration of each ion in the new solution 100 - gt 2Na aq SO42 aq J 0.0010 M 0.00050 M gt Ba2 aq 2Cl aq 0.0050 M H .010 M Recall that Q has the same form as the equilibrium constant, in this case K , but the concentrations are not necessarily equilibrium concentrations. We consider the kinds of compounds mixed and determine whether a reaction could occur. Both Na2SO4 and BaCl2 are soluble ionic salts. At the moment of mixing, the new solution contains a mixture of Na , SO42...